Chapter 2 Important Questions: Reshaping India’s Political Map

✔ Correct Answer: (b) Prithviraj Chauhan

The Delhi Sultanate was formed after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan, who ruled over parts of northwestern India, in 1192. This marked the beginning of Turkic-Afghan rule in India.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Five

The Delhi Sultanate saw the rule of five successive dynasties: the Mamluks (Slave dynasty), the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids, and the Lodis — all of Turkic-Afghan origin.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Akbar

Akbar promoted the doctrine of sulh-i-kul, meaning 'peace with all' or tolerance of all faiths. He also abolished the jizya tax and entered into marriage alliances with neighbouring kingdoms to stabilise his empire.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Vijayanagara Empire

In 1565, the Deccan Sultanates formed a coalition and defeated the Vijayanagara forces at the Battle of Talikota. The city was sacked over several months and left in ruins, leading to the eventual fragmentation of the empire.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Narasimhadeva I

Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga kingdom built the famed Sūrya temple at Konark (in present-day Odisha) partly to commemorate his military victories, including the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate's governor of Bengal.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Mughal Empire

The Battle of Saraighat was fought on the Brahmaputra River near present-day Guwahati in 1671. Lachit Borphukan led 10,000 Ahom soldiers to defeat a Mughal force of 30,000 soldiers sent by Aurangzeb.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) 1526

Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, which ended the Delhi Sultanate and laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire. This battle relied heavily on gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns.

✔ Correct Answer: (a) Harihara and Bukka

Harihara and Bukka, who had initially served as governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, rejected Delhi's authority and established the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century, with their capital at Hampi in present-day Karnataka.

✔ Correct Answer: (d) Guru Gobind Singh

Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th and last Sikh Guru, established the Khalsa in 1699 — a martial brotherhood committed to justice, equality and defence of the faith — in response to the persecution of Sikhs under Aurangzeb.

✔ Correct Answer: (b) Assigning territories to nobles to collect taxes for the Sultan's treasury

The iqta system assigned territories to nobles called iqtadars to collect taxes; the revenue minus expenses was supposed to go to the Sultan's treasury, mainly to maintain the army. Importantly, these posts were not hereditary.

Daulatabad (then called Devagiri). Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital to Daulatabad hoping its more central location would offer better control of his empire, but the plan misfired, causing great loss of life during both transfers.

Krishnadevaraya. Under Krishnadevaraya in the 16th century, the Vijayanagara Empire achieved its greatest military power and cultural renaissance; he patronised poets and scholars and composed the epic poem Āmuktamālyada in Telugu.

Hundi. A hundi was a financial instrument that enabled merchants to transfer funds across political boundaries without physically transporting currency, making trade safer and less vulnerable to plunder.

Todar Mal. Todar Mal made detailed surveys of crop yields and prices across the entire Mughal Empire, introducing a systematic land survey that boosted revenue collection and strengthened the state apparatus.

Paik system. The paik system allowed Ahom rulers to create public infrastructure and maintain a large standing force without a permanent army, contributing significantly to their ability to resist Mughal invasions.

False. The term 'medieval' was originally applied to European history, roughly from the fall of the Roman Empire (5th century CE) to the Renaissance (14th–16th centuries); it was later applied to Indian history, though historians do not always agree on which period it covers in India.

True. Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest territorial expansion, though it was constantly faced with significant rebellions; however, his long Deccan campaigns drained the treasury and contributed to the rapid decline of Mughal power after his death in 1707.

False. Despite being forced to retreat at the Battle of Haldighati in 1576, Maharana Pratap never accepted Mughal suzerainty. He continued to wage guerrilla warfare from the Aravalli hills for years, supported by the Bhil community.

True. The Bahmani Sultanate fragmented into five independent states — Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar — each ruled by former governors or tarafdars who declared autonomy, collectively known as the Deccan Sultanates.

False. Akbar was actually illiterate, yet he developed a keen interest in Persian and Indian texts. He established a 'house of translation' at Fatehpur Sikri where major Sanskrit texts like the Mahābhārata, Rāmāyaṇa, and Bhagavad Gītā were translated into Persian.

The shaded region represents the Vijayanagara Empire. Its capital was at Hampi in present-day Karnataka. The empire was established in the 14th century by Harihara and Bukka and reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya in the 16th century, dominating the Deccan and southern India.

This coin was minted by Ala-ud-din Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate. The inscription 'Sikander Sani' means 'the second Alexander' in Persian. By comparing himself to Alexander the Great, Ala-ud-din Khilji was projecting himself as a great conqueror, as he had conducted military campaigns over large areas of north and central India.

Jizya was a discriminatory tax imposed on non-Muslim subjects by some sultans and later by Aurangzeb, ostensibly to grant them protection and exemption from military service. In practice, it was a source of economic burden and public humiliation, and served as a financial incentive for conversion to Islam. Akbar had abolished it, but Aurangzeb reimposed it.

Jauhar was the practice of Rajput women jumping into mass fires to avoid being captured, enslaved, or dishonoured when invading armies conquered their territory. It was considered a heroic act of final resistance and a means of preserving one's honour, as seen when hundreds of Rajput women committed jauhar when Akbar broke into the Chittorgarh Fort.

Rani Durgavati was a valiant queen of the Garha kingdom (a Gond kingdom in central India) who ruled wisely and kept an army of 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants. When a general sent by Akbar attacked her kingdom in 1564, she led her troops bravely and, upon being wounded, took her own life to avoid capture. Her sacrifice became a symbol of regional pride and resistance.

The mansabdari system was an administrative and military ranking system where mansabdars (officers) were assigned a mansab (rank) and were required to maintain a precise number of elephants, horses, camels, and troops for the state. This allowed the Mughal Empire to assemble an army at short notice without maintaining a permanent centralised force; mansabdars were paid through land grants called jagirs.

Iconoclasm refers to the rejection or destruction of icons or religious images considered idolatrous. During the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods, numerous attacks on sacred images in Buddhist, Jain and Hindu temples occurred — motivated not only by plunder but also by the iconoclastic beliefs of some rulers, as seen in Aurangzeb's 1669 edict ordering the demolition of temples and schools of 'infidels'.

Guerrilla warfare is a style of fighting where small groups with knowledge of the terrain carry out surprise attacks and ambushes to defeat bigger armies. In this chapter, both Maharana Pratap (who used the Aravalli hills to wage guerrilla war against the Mughals for years) and the Ahoms (who used the dense forests, hills, and rivers of Assam) employed this strategy effectively.

The five successive dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate, all of Turkic-Afghan origin, were:

The First Battle of Panipat in 1526 was significant because Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, which put a final end to the Delhi Sultanate and laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire. The battle was also notable for its heavy use of gunpowder, field artillery, and matchlock guns, which had recently been introduced in warfare in India.

The paik system required every able-bodied man to provide service to the state through labour or military duty in exchange for land rights. This dual benefit meant the Ahom rulers could create public infrastructure (roads, irrigation) using labour service while also maintaining a large standing military force without the expense of a permanent army, contributing to their successful resistance against Mughal invasions.

The Deccan Sultanates were the five independent states formed when the Bahmani Sultanate fragmented, each ruled by former governors or tarafdars who declared autonomy. The five states were:

$\text{Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar}$

They formed a coalition that defeated the Vijayanagara Empire at the Battle of Talikota in 1565.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was intelligent and ambitious, expanding the Delhi Sultanate so that for the first time since the Mauryan Empire most of the Subcontinent was under one ruler. However, his schemes were poorly executed, making his reign ultimately unsuccessful.

Example 1 — Transfer of capital: He moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (over 1,000 km), forcing the entire population to relocate. When the plan failed, he moved it back, resulting in great loss of life during both transfers.

Example 2 — Token currency: He introduced cheap copper coins to be used as tokens with the value of silver or gold coins. Though conceptually progressive, this caused confusion in trade and encouraged widespread counterfeiting, leading to economic decline.

During the medieval period, temples served far more than just religious purposes — they were vibrant economic hubs.

Key Points:

• Ruling classes donated land and wealth (dāna) to temple deities, held in trust by temple managers.

• Temple managers developed community infrastructure such as irrigation systems, tanks, pilgrimage accommodations (dharmaśhālās and chhatrams).

• Temples provided credit to merchants and funded both internal and maritime trade.

• Bustling markets grew around temple complexes, creating local economic ecosystems.

Thus, temples were integral to India's economic prosperity, especially in the south, acting as centres of commerce, community welfare, and financial services.

Akbar vs Aurangzeb — Treatment of Non-Muslim Subjects:

Akbar's inclusive approach helped stabilise and expand his empire, while Aurangzeb's intolerance fuelled rebellions that ultimately weakened Mughal power.

Sikhism and Mughal Political Events:

Sikhism began as a purely spiritual movement founded by Guru Nanak in 15th-century Punjab, spreading the message of equality, compassion, and the oneness of God (Ik Onkār). However, growing Mughal intolerance forced Sikh Gurus to take a more martial stance.

• Guru Arjan Dev compiled the Guru Granth Sahib but was tortured to death by Emperor Jahangir for supporting a rebellion. This prompted his son Guru Hargobind to form a Sikh army.

• Guru Tegh Bahadur was publicly beheaded in Chandni Chowk on Aurangzeb's orders in 1675 for refusing to convert to Islam and for protecting Kashmiri Pandits.

• In response, his son Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa in 1699 — a martial brotherhood — to defend justice and faith against Mughal persecution.

Sources of Wealth for the Delhi Sultanate's Ruling Class:

Key Points:

• Plunder from military campaigns — sacking and raiding cities, temples, and centres of learning.

• Taxes levied on common people and conquered regions, with the heaviest burden falling on the peasantry; land revenue was sometimes raised to one-half of the produce.

• Slave trade — enslaved people provided free labour or were sold to Central Asia.

Impact on Common People:

Plunder disrupted trade networks and agricultural production. Heavy taxation caused peasants to lose land and become bonded labourers. Attacks on temples destroyed community economic ecosystems. Frequent warfare caused forced displacement and suffering. While the sultans lived in luxurious palaces, wealth was concentrated among rulers, courtiers, and merchants.

Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate

$\text{Period: } 1192 \text{ CE} \rightarrow 1526 \text{ CE}$

Establishment

The Delhi Sultanate was established after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192. Five successive Turkic-Afghan dynasties ruled it:

Key Features

• Political instability: Almost two out of three sultans seized power by eliminating predecessors; average reign was barely nine years.

• The iqta system assigned territories to nobles (iqtadars) to collect taxes for the Sultan's treasury.

• The jizya tax on non-Muslims created social and economic discrimination.

Factors of Decline

1. Internal instability — violent successions and rebellions from regional sultanates (Bahmani, Gujarat, Bengal).

2. Timur's invasion (1398) — devastating attack on Delhi left the city in ruins and chaos.

3. Resistance from kingdoms — Eastern Gangas, Hoysalas, Musunuri Nayakas, Rana Kumbha of Mewar all resisted the Sultanate.

4. Shrinking territory — by the time of the Lodis, the territory had shrunk considerably.

5. Babur's victory at Panipat (1526) — defeated Ibrahim Lodi using gunpowder and artillery, ending the Sultanate permanently.

Conclusion

Despite its territorial expansions, the Delhi Sultanate was ultimately undermined by political fragmentation, external invasions, and fierce resistance from within India, paving the way for the Mughal Empire.

The Vijayanagara Empire

$\text{Period: 1336 CE} \rightarrow \text{mid-17th century CE}$

Establishment

Harihara and Bukka, two brothers who had served as governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, rejected Delhi's authority and established the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336. According to popular folklore, they were inspired to set up their capital at Hampi (present-day Karnataka) after witnessing a hare chase a pack of hounds — a symbol of unexpected strength interpreted by their guru Vidyaranya.

Greatest Ruler — Krishnadevaraya

In the 16th century, Krishnadevaraya brought the empire to its peak:

Cultural Achievements

• Magnificent temples at Hampi (Vitthala temple with musical pillars) and Virūpākṣha temple.

• Grand palaces, markets, and conduits described in travellers' accounts.

• Thriving arts, architecture, and scholarship in multiple languages.

Decline and Fall

After Krishnadevaraya's death in 1529, the five Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, Bidar) formed a coalition and defeated the Vijayanagara forces led by Ramaraya at the Battle of Talikota (1565). The city was sacked over months — houses, shops, palaces, temples destroyed, and civilians massacred. The empire fragmented into smaller regions ruled by Nayakas and ended in the mid-17th century.

Sketch Map Description

[SKETCH MAP — Draw and Label:]

• Draw the Indian peninsula outline.

• Shade the Deccan plateau region (centred on Karnataka) for the Vijayanagara Empire.

• Mark Hampi/Vijayanagara as the capital with a dot.

• To the north, mark the Bahmani Sultanate / Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda).

• To the east, mark the Gajapati Kingdom (Odisha).

• To the south, mark the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.

• Mark Calicut (Kozhikode) on the west coast as a trade port.

Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire

Despite the political dominance of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire, numerous kingdoms and communities offered fierce resistance, preserving their independence or significantly limiting the power of these empires.

1. Eastern Ganga Kingdom — Narasimhadeva I

The Eastern Ganga kingdom of Kalinga (present-day Odisha) successfully repelled multiple invasions of the Delhi Sultanate. King Narasimhadeva I not only defended his kingdom but also defeated the Delhi Sultanate's governor of Bengal. To commemorate these victories, he built the magnificent Sūrya temple at Konark.

$\text{Outcome: Full independence maintained; cultural brilliance flourished}$

2. Rajputs — Maharana Pratap and Mewar

Maharana Pratap of Mewar refused Mughal suzerainty even after the Battle of Haldighati (1576). He escaped and waged guerrilla warfare for years from the Aravalli hills in harsh conditions, with crucial support from the Bhil community who contributed archery skills and knowledge of terrain.

$\text{Outcome: Mughal authority remained limited in Rajasthan}$

3. The Ahoms — Battle of Saraighat (1671)

The Ahom kingdom of the Brahmaputra Valley used their paik system to maintain a ready army and used the dense forests, rivers and hills of Assam for guerrilla tactics. Under Lachit Borphukan, just 10,000 Ahom soldiers defeated a Mughal force of 30,000 at the Battle of Saraighat.

$\text{Outcome: Ahoms preserved full independence from Mughal control}$

4. Sikh Resistance — Guru Gobind Singh and the Khalsa

The Sikh Gurus progressively resisted Mughal persecution. After Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded by Aurangzeb (1675), Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa in 1699 — a martial brotherhood that frequently clashed with Mughal forces. Sikh confederacies later emerged across Punjab, ultimately unified under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

$\text{Outcome: Sikh Empire established; resisted both Mughals and later British}$

5. Rani Durgavati — Gond Resistance

Rani Durgavati, queen of the Gond Garha kingdom, maintained an army of 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants and repelled several invasions. When Akbar's general attacked in 1564, she led her troops personally and died on the battlefield rather than surrender.

$\text{Outcome: Became an enduring symbol of resistance and regional pride}$

Summary Table

These examples demonstrate that India's political resilience during this period came not just from large empires but from countless acts of resistance by kingdoms, communities, and individuals.

Economic and Social Life in Medieval India (13th–17th Centuries)

Despite frequent political upheaval, India remained one of the wealthiest regions in the world during this period, sustained by robust economic and social systems.

Agriculture — The Foundation

Agriculture was the mainstay of the Indian economy:

• Land revenue was typically set at one-fifth of produce, though some sultans raised it to one-half.

• Expansion of irrigation systems (including Persian wheels, canals) increased productivity.

• Multiple crops grown: food crops (rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, spices) and non-food items (cotton, silk, wool, dyes, jute).

• However, peasants suffered severe famines and heavy taxation, often losing land and becoming bonded labourers.

Trade and Commerce

India exported more than it imported, with goods flowing through coastal towns:

$\text{Key ports: Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam, Hooghly}$

• Imports included silk, horses, metals, and luxury goods.

• Merchants from Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia settled in Indian ports.

• The hundi system allowed fund transfers across political boundaries without physically carrying currency — a precursor to modern banking.

• Trader communities like the Marwaris operated across political regimes using parallel systems of credit and trust.

Artisanal Industries

• Craftspeople produced textiles, weapons, utensils, ornaments, and jewellery.

• Ship-building developed significantly, essential for river and overseas trade.

• Śhreṇis (guilds) and jātis (professional communities) organised production efficiently.

Temples as Economic Centres

Social Life

• Despite political instability, people of different faiths lived peacefully side by side, economically dependent on each other.

• A shared cultural heritage emerged through interaction between communities.

• Rulers across India patronised arts — classical arts, music, calligraphy, miniature painting flourished, especially during the Mughal period.

• Coins in several metals and denominations were introduced; Mughals used the rupaya (silver) and dam (copper).

Conclusion

India's economic resilience during this period came from its decentralised systems — guilds, jatis, the hundi network, and temple economies — which functioned independently of political structures. Though wealth was concentrated among rulers and merchants, and peasants faced hardship, India endured as an economically prosperous civilisation through agriculture, trade, craftsmanship, and community solidarity.

Administration: Delhi Sultanate vs Mughal Empire under Akbar

Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was centred on the Sultan, who held absolute authority as both political and military head. His duties included defending territories, collecting taxes, and maintaining contact with the people.

Key Features:

• Council of Ministers assisted the Sultan in various departments.

• Iqta System: Territories were assigned to nobles (iqtadars) to collect taxes; revenue (minus expenses) went to the Sultan's treasury to maintain the army. Posts were not hereditary.

• Heavy taxes on trade at every stage; the burden fell most heavily on peasants.

• Contemporary accounts report considerable cruelty in extracting revenue.

$\text{Iqta System: Territory} \rightarrow \text{Iqtadar} \rightarrow \text{Tax collection} \rightarrow \text{Sultan's Treasury}$

Mughal Administration under Akbar

Akbar reorganised the administrative machinery for greater efficiency:

• The empire was divided into twelve provinces (subahs), further subdivided with checks and balances.

• At the village level, traditional self-governance structures continued undisturbed.

• Mansabdari System: Officers (mansabdars) assigned a rank (mansab) maintained a specified number of elephants, horses, camels and troops. Paid through land grants (jagirs); also called jagirdars.

• Todar Mal's revenue system: Detailed surveys of crop yields and prices; systematic land survey across the empire boosted revenue collection.

$\text{Mansab (rank)} \rightarrow \text{Mansabdar maintains troops} \rightarrow \text{Army assembled at short notice}$

Comparison

Conclusion

Both systems were centralised monarchies dependent on tax collection to fund military operations. However, Akbar's system was more efficient, systematic, and inclusive — introducing detailed revenue surveys, balanced administration, and greater tolerance — which helped stabilise and expand the empire far more effectively than the often brutal and unstable Sultanate administration.