Chapter 2 Notes: Reshaping India’s Political Map

The term medieval refers to the period from the 11th to 17th centuries in Indian history. Starting from the early 11th century, invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush mountains by Turkic and Afghan peoples from Central Asia reshaped India's political map. These invaders were attracted by India's wealth, desire for territory, and to spread their religion.

The Delhi Sultanate was formed after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192. It saw five successive dynasties: Mamluks (Slave dynasty), Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids, and Lodis. Key features:

• Ala-ud-din Khilji conquered large areas and repelled Mongol invasions; his general Malik Kafur expanded southward.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq briefly unified most of the subcontinent but failed due to poor decisions like shifting the capital to Daulatabad and introducing copper token currency.
• Timur's invasion (1398) devastated Delhi, leaving it in ruins.
• Successions were violent — almost 2 out of 3 sultans seized power by eliminating predecessors, making the average reign only ~9 years.

Many kingdoms and rulers resisted the Delhi Sultanate successfully:

• Eastern Ganga Kingdom (Kalinga/Odisha): King Narasimhadeva I repelled multiple Sultanate attacks and built the famous Surya Temple at Konark to commemorate his victories.
• Hoysalas of Karnataka resisted several attacks but were eventually absorbed into the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Musunuri Nayakas united 75 Telugu chieftains and expelled Muhammad bin Tughlaq's army from Warangal.
• Rana Kumbha of Mewar (Rajasthan) repelled invasions from the Sultanate and later sultanates in the 15th century.

Founded in the 14th century by brothers Harihara and Bukka (former governors under Muhammad bin Tughlaq) at Hampi (Karnataka), the Vijayanagara Empire became a major southern power. It reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya (16th century) who:

• Won wars against the Deccan Sultanates and Gajapati rulers of Odisha.
• Patronised poets and scholars in Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada.
• Built grand temples including the Vitthala Temple with famous musical pillars.

In 1565, the Deccan Sultanates united and defeated Vijayanagara at the Battle of Talikota, destroying the capital city. The empire fragmented into smaller Nayaka kingdoms.

Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526) using gunpowder, artillery and matchlock guns, ending the Delhi Sultanate and founding the Mughal Empire. Key rulers:

• Humayun: Struggled to hold the empire; temporarily lost power to Sher Shah Suri.
• Akbar (1556–1605): Expanded the empire greatly; practised sulh-i-kul (peace with all faiths); abolished jizya; created the mansabdari system; had Sanskrit texts translated into Persian; built Fatehpur Sikri.
• Shah Jahan: Built the Taj Mahal; period of great art and architecture.
• Aurangzeb (1658–1707): Reached the empire's greatest territorial extent but reimposed jizya, destroyed temples and gurudwaras, persecuted non-Muslims; constant wars drained the treasury, leading to decline after his death.

Several groups resisted Mughal expansion:

• Rani Durgavati (Gond queen, central India): Fought bravely against Akbar's forces in 1564; chose death over capture at age 40.
• Maharana Pratap (Mewar): Refused to accept Mughal authority; fought at the Battle of Haldighati (1576); conducted guerrilla warfare from the Aravalli hills with support from the Bhil warriors.
• Ahoms (Northeast India): Used knowledge of terrain (forests, rivers, hills) and guerrilla tactics; Lachit Borphukan defeated 30,000 Mughal soldiers with just 10,000 men at the Battle of Saraighat (1671) on the Brahmaputra River.
• Sikh Gurus: Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded by Aurangzeb (1675); his son Guru Gobind Singh founded the Khalsa (1699), a martial brotherhood committed to justice and defence of faith.

After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal Empire weakened rapidly due to constant wars draining the treasury and growing rebellions. Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified Sikh confederacies and established a strong Sikh Empire in the early 19th century covering much of the Northwest including parts of Kashmir. This empire resisted both Mughal remnants and British expansion until the mid-19th century.

Despite political instability, India remained one of the wealthiest regions in the world due to:

• Agriculture: The main economic activity; crops included rice, wheat, cotton, silk, and spices. Land revenue was typically one-fifth of produce, though some sultans raised it to one-half.
• Trade: Indian goods (textiles, spices, jewellery) were exported from ports like Calicut, Surat, and Hooghly. The hundi system allowed merchants to transfer money safely without carrying cash.
• Temples as economic centres: Temples managed land grants, provided credit, funded trade, and built community infrastructure.
• Common people: Peasants, craftspeople and labourers often suffered under heavy taxes; wealth was mostly concentrated among rulers and merchants. People of different faiths largely lived peacefully side by side.