Chapter 3 Important Questions: The Rise of the Marathas

✔ Correct Answer: (b) 1630

According to the chapter, Shivaji was born in 1630 in the Bhonsle clan to Shahji and Jijabai.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Raigad

In 1674, Chhatrapati Shivaji was coronated with full Vedic rites at the strong mountain fortress of Raigad, after which he assumed the formal title 'Shri Raja Shiva Chhatrapati'.

✔ Correct Answer: (b) Guerrilla warfare

Guerrilla warfare uses small groups of fighters with speed, surprise, and knowledge of terrain to defeat bigger armies. Chhatrapati Shivaji successfully employed this tactic against enemies like the Bijapur Sultanate.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Jai Singh

After the sacking of Surat, Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh, a distinguished Rajput general, to defeat Chhatrapati Shivaji. Shivaji was forced to concede defeat at Purandar Fort and sign a treaty.

✔ Correct Answer: (b) Types of taxes levied by the Marathas

Chauth was a tax of $25\%$ and sardeshmukhi was an additional $10\%$ levied by the Marathas from provinces not directly under them, in return for protection.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Kanhoji Angre

Kanhoji Angre guided the Marathas to victory in many naval battles using clever geography and battle tactics, and even forced Europeans to obtain passes from the Marathas rather than the other way around.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Tarabai

Tarabai, the fearless warrior queen, organised large Maratha armies and sent them to invade Mughal territories in the north after her husband Rajaram's death, making her the architect of northward Maratha expansion.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) A vision of a sovereign kingdom

Swarājya was Chhatrapati Shivaji's vision of a sovereign, self-governed kingdom that encompassed political, economic, and cultural aspects of independence.

✔ Correct Answer: (b) Battle of Panipat

In 1761, the Marathas suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Panipat against the Afghans. However, they quickly recovered under Peshwa Madhavrao I.

✔ Correct Answer: (c) Thanjavur

Ekoji, the half-brother of Chhatrapati Shivaji, conquered the Thanjavur region in present-day Tamil Nadu, beginning a rich era of Maratha patronage of arts and culture in the south.

Eight. The aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala literally means a council of eight ministers, each assigned a specific role such as finance, intelligence, foreign affairs, and justice, to assist the king.

Wāgh nakh. The wāgh nakh (meaning 'tiger's claw') is a small handheld weapon with curved blades resembling a tiger's claws, famously used by Chhatrapati Shivaji in close combat.

Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha. This treatise was commissioned by Chhatrapati Shivaji specifically to replace prevalent Persian words used in diplomacy with Sanskrit equivalents, thus asserting Maratha cultural identity.

Peshwa. The Peshwa was the prime minister of the Maratha Empire and wielded great influence, especially during the period of pan-Indian Maratha expansion in the 18th century.

Moḍī script. The Moḍī script is a cursive form of Devanagari and was the primary script used by the Marathas for their administrative and personal correspondence.

True. Chhatrapati Shivaji instituted a centralised administration where he abolished hereditary posts and land assignments, instead paying salaries from the state treasury to ensure loyalty and efficiency.

False. The chapter clearly states that even the Mughal Empire's use of a navy was very limited, and it was Chhatrapati Shivaji who took the revolutionary step of establishing a proper full-time naval force.

False. Aurangzeb died without having succeeded in subduing the Marathas; he was unable to leave the Deccan as the Marathas staunchly defended their forts and continued to resist Mughal power.

True. Ahilyabai Holkar is most famously credited with rebuilding the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi that Aurangzeb had destroyed, as well as the Somnath temple in Gujarat.

False. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% over and above the chauth; it was chauth that amounted to $25\%$ of the revenue of protected provinces.

The figure at the centre of the aṣhṭa pradhāna manḍala chart is the Chhatrapatī — the Sovereign King. All eight ministers (Pradhān, Amātya, Mantrī, Sachiv, Sumant, Senāpatī, Panḍitrāo, and Nyāyādhīsh) surrounded and assisted the Chhatrapatī.

The coastal fort near the Maharashtra-Goa border shown on the map is Sindhudurg Fort. It was one of the several naval fortifications built by the Marathas to secure and defend the western coastline.

Key Points:

• The Marathas are a group of people native to the Deccan plateau, specifically present-day Maharashtra.

• They are identified with the Marathi language, which has a rich and continuous literary history since the $12^{th}$ century.

Key Points:

• A jāgīr was a piece of land granted by a king to a noble or soldier as a reward for service; the recipient could collect taxes from it.

• Shivaji grew up in his father Shahji's jāgīr at Pune, under the guidance of his mother Jijabai and trusted officials, which shaped his values and leadership.

Key Points:

• Founding the Maratha Navy in 1657 was a truly revolutionary step at the time, as neither the Bijapur Sultanate nor the Mughal Empire maintained a full-time naval force.

• The navy helped Chhatrapati Shivaji secure the west coast, protect trade, and challenge European naval dominance.

Key Points:

• The dakṣhiṇa-digvijaya (conquest of the South) was Chhatrapati Shivaji's campaign into present-day northern Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka after his coronation in 1674.

• This southern extension gave the Marathas great strategic depth against future Mughal invasions from the north.

Key Points:

Both were types of soldiers in the Maratha cavalry, forming a key part of their military strength.

Key Points:

• Europeans had been forcing Indian ships to buy naval trade passes (called cartaz in Portuguese), confiscating any ship without one.

• Kanhoji Angre challenged this practice by demanding passes from the Europeans themselves, who called him a 'pirate' out of frustration at being resisted.

Key Points:

• Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, and Ramdas were prominent bhakti saints of Maharashtra.

• They translated important texts like the Upaniṣhads and the Bhagavad Gītā into Marathi, making philosophy accessible to common people and providing a solid cultural foundation for Maratha political organisation.

Key Points:

• The Rājyābhiṣheka shaka was a new era started by Chhatrapati Shivaji following his coronation in 1674 at Raigad.

• Like some past rulers, he initiated this era to assert his sovereignty and establish the Maratha kingdom as an independent political entity distinct from Mughal or Sultanate authority.

Key Points:

• Ramachandrapant Amatya was the Finance Minister (Amātya) of Chhatrapati Shivaji's administration.

• The Ādnyāpatra ('The Royal Edict') was a work authored by him in 1715 that discussed administration, the importance of forts, and warned about the intentions of European trading powers in India.

Key Points:

• Three Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought between 1775 and 1818.

• Due to increased internal disunity among the Marathas and the superior organisational and technological abilities of the British, the Marathas were defeated in the Third Anglo-Maratha War ($1818$), effectively ending Maratha power in India.

Escape from Agra:

After being humiliated at Aurangzeb's court, Chhatrapati Shivaji was placed under house arrest in Agra. He devised a clever strategy — he began distributing gifts to holy men and Mughal generals in large baskets of fruits and sweets. Guards who initially checked the baskets soon stopped doing so.

Expecting this, Shivaji and his son Sambhaji hid themselves in the baskets and made their escape. Aurangzeb could never capture him again.

This incident reveals Shivaji's sharp strategic thinking, patience, and courage — he turned a helpless situation into a victory through intelligence rather than force.

Bhakti Movement and Maratha Rise:

• Between the $7^{th}$ and $17^{th}$ centuries, saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, and Ramdas composed devotional poetry in Marathi, spreading philosophical ideas among common people.

• They translated texts like the Upaniṣhads and Bhagavad Gītā into Marathi, making ideas of sovereignty and righteousness accessible.

• Some saints also focused on social organisation and political awareness, similar to the Sikh Gurus.

As a result, Maratha society developed a solid cultural and spiritual foundation, which enabled people to later organise themselves into a powerful political force under Chhatrapati Shivaji.

Forts as the Core of Maratha Power:

Forts were the foundation of Maratha military and political strength for several reasons:

• They helped control important routes and shelter the army during guerrilla warfare.

• As Ramachandrapant Amatya wrote in the Ādnyāpatra: "In their absence, the land gets devastated in the face of an invasion."

• Chhatrapati Shivaji began his campaigns at age 16 by capturing neglected forts in the Pune region.

Examples: Raigad (capital and coronation site), Pratapgad (where Afzal Khan was killed), Sindhudurg (naval fort), and Purandar (where Shivaji conceded defeat to Jai Singh) — all highlight the strategic importance of forts.

Cultural Contributions of Serfoji II:

Serfoji II was the most notable among the Thanjavur Maratha rulers, contributing in multiple fields:

• He was well-versed in many Indian and European languages and wrote a Marathi play named Devendra Kuravanji describing world geography.

• He patronised talented musicians, during whose time modern Carnatic music took shape and Bharatanatyam developed in its early classical form.

• He established the Dhanwantari Mahal, a centre offering free treatment using both Indian and Western medicine.

• He started a printing press — the first by a native Indian ruler — and had the Bhonsle family history inscribed on the Brihadishwara temple walls, one of India's largest inscriptions.

Chhatrapati Shivaji's Administration and Values:

$\text{Good Governance} = \text{Accountability} + \text{Care for People} + \text{Cultural Pride}$

Three key features:

His instruction not to harm the subjects — "If you accomplish something by oppressing others, it perishes soon" — reflects his belief in compassionate and just governance.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj — A Complete Account

Early Life

Shivaji was born in 1630 in the Bhonsle clan to Shahji and Jijabai. Growing up in the jagir at Pune under his mother's guidance, he imbibed strong values and leadership qualities. At just 16 years, he launched military campaigns, capturing neglected forts and building the foundation of Swarājya (sovereign kingdom).

Military Achievements

Key Points:

• Pioneered guerrilla warfare — using small forces, speed, surprise, and terrain knowledge to defeat larger armies.

• Killed the Bijapur general Afzal Khan at Pratapgad using the wāgh nakh.

• Raided Shaista Khan's camp at night with just a few soldiers, forcing the Mughal nobleman to flee.

• Sacked Surat twice, gaining enormous wealth; events so famous they appeared in the London Gazette.

• Founded the Maratha Navy in 1657 — a revolutionary step unmatched by the Mughals or Bijapur Sultanate.

• Conducted the dakṣhiṇa-digvijaya (conquest of the South, 1677) for strategic depth.

• Was coronated at Raigad in 1674 with full Vedic rites.

Administrative Reforms

Cultural Contributions

• Commissioned Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha to replace Persian words with Sanskrit in diplomacy.

• His royal seal carried a Sanskrit inscription declaring his reign for the welfare of the people.

• Rebuilt desecrated temples, promoted Sanskrit and Marathi literature.

• Respected all religions while firmly upholding his own; forbade the Dutch from trading in Indian slaves.

Legacy

Shivaji died at fifty from a fever but left an immortal legacy. He inspired Bundela prince Chhatrasal to create an independent kingdom. The poet Bhushan composed celebrated poems in his honour. He demonstrated that mighty empires could be defeated and Indians could govern themselves — planting the seeds of India's freedom movement.

Maratha Military Administration — Structure and Evolution

Structure of the Armed Forces

The Maratha armed forces were divided into three main divisions:

$\text{Maratha Military} = \text{Infantry} + \text{Cavalry} + \text{Navy}$

Cavalry

The cavalry had two types of soldiers:

Weapons

• Primary weapons: Swords and lances

• Also used: Guns in sizable numbers

• Rockets were used from Shivaji's era itself; by 1770, metal tube rockets were deployed.

Forts

Forts were the backbone of Maratha military power, used to:

• Control strategic routes and mountain passes

• Shelter armies during guerrilla campaigns

• Serve as centres of resistance against sieges (as seen during the Mughal-Maratha wars)

Evolution of Military Strategy

Phase 1 — Shivaji's era:

• Relied on guerrilla warfare using mountain terrain and forts

• Built a navy to secure the western coast

• Used speed, surprise, and knowledge of terrain against larger Mughal/Bijapur armies

Phase 2 — 18th century expansion:

• Tarabai organised large-scale conventional armies for northward expansion

• Marathas moved from defensive guerrilla tactics to offensive pan-Indian campaigns

• Challenged European naval supremacy under Kanhoji Angre

Phase 3 — Adapting to European methods:

• Noticing the superiority of European-style disciplined troops and artillery, the Marathas recruited and trained such forces.

• Mahadji Shinde built a large European-style army, enabling the recapture of Delhi in 1771.

Decline

Despite this adaptation, internal disunity and the superior organisational and technological abilities of the British ultimately ended Maratha military power after three Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818).

The Maratha Legacy — A Comprehensive Examination

Political Legacy

• The Marathas challenged Mughal dominance and established the largest Indian empire before the British.

• They controlled much of central and northern India, briefly extending to Lahore, Attock, and even Peshawar (modern Pakistan).

• The chapter notes: "The British took India from the Marathas more than from the Mughals or any other power."

• They pioneered pan-Indian political unity that prefigured later national consciousness.

Administrative Legacy

Cultural Legacy

• Revived Sanskrit and Marathi literature, traditional arts, and Hindu religious institutions.

• Inspired cultural confidence across India — worship of Jagannath at Puri was revived; temples destroyed by Aurangzeb and Mahmud of Ghazni were rebuilt by Ahilyabai Holkar.

• The Thanjavur Marathas created a syncretic culture blending Tamil, Telugu, and Marathi traditions, giving rise to Carnatic music and Bharatanatyam in their classical forms.

• Serfoji II established a medical centre and the first printing press by a native Indian ruler.

Inspiration for Freedom Movement

• The Maratha ideal of Swarājya planted early seeds for India's freedom movement, demonstrating that Indians could defeat powerful foreign rulers and self-govern.

• Their resistance inspired leaders like Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand.

Map Description (Maratha Empire c. 1680)

Draw an outline map of India and mark/label the following:

• Raigad — Maratha capital and coronation site (Maharashtra coast)

• Sindhudurg — Coastal naval fort near Maharashtra-Goa border

• Pratapgad — Hill fort (Maharashtra); site of Afzal Khan's defeat

• Purandar — Fort near Pune; site of treaty with Jai Singh

• Gingee — Fort in present-day Tamil Nadu; refuge of Rajaram

• Thanjavur — Maratha cultural centre in the south (Tamil Nadu)

• Pune — Administrative centre

• Arabian Sea (west) and Bay of Bengal (east) — mark the coastlines

• Use different symbols for hill forts, coastal forts, and cities as shown in the legend.

Tarabai and Ahilyabai Holkar — Comparative Study

Introduction

The Maratha Empire was shaped not only by kings and generals but also by extraordinary women leaders whose contributions were decisive in different ways.

Tarabai (Early 18th Century)

Background:

• Queen of Rajaram, son of Chhatrapati Shivaji; took charge after Rajaram's death

Military Contributions:

• Recognised that with Aurangzeb's army in the Deccan, north India was unprotected

• Organised large Maratha armies and sent them to invade Mughal territories in the north

• Described as the architect of northward Maratha expansion

Significance:

$\text{Tarabai's Strategy} \Rightarrow \text{Maratha survival} + \text{Northward expansion}$

• Her military strategy and tenacity outsmarted the Mughal Empire and preserved Maratha independence during a critical period.

Ahilyabai Holkar (18th Century)

Background:

• Scion of the Holkar dynasty; ruled the kingdom of Indore (central India) for thirty years after losing her husband and son

Administrative Contributions:

• Governed wisely with deep care for common people

• Promoted the Maheshwar weaving industry in Madhya Pradesh, revitalising traditional handloom crafts

Cultural and Religious Contributions:

• Built and restored hundreds of temples, ghats, wells, and roads across India — from Kedarnath to Rameswaram

• Rebuilt the Kashi Vishwanath temple (destroyed by Aurangzeb) in Varanasi

• Rebuilt the Somnath temple (destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni) in Gujarat

Comparison Table

Conclusion

Both women demonstrated extraordinary courage, intelligence, and dedication in times of crisis. Tarabai saved the Maratha Empire militarily, while Ahilyabai shaped its cultural and spiritual legacy. Together, they prove that Maratha greatness was built equally by its mighty women as by its famous kings.

Maratha Pan-Indian Expansion and Decline

Phase 1 — Foundation under Chhatrapati Shivaji (1646–1680)

• Shivaji consolidated the Pune region at age 16 by capturing forts

• Extended his kingdom to India's west coast; founded the Maratha Navy in 1657

• Conducted dakṣhiṇa-digvijaya (1677) into Tamil Nadu and Karnataka

• Coronated at Raigad (1674) establishing formal sovereignty

Phase 2 — Resistance and Survival (1680–1720)

• After Shivaji's death ($1680$), Sambhaji continued resistance but was captured and executed by Aurangzeb

• Rajaram fled to Gingee; Tarabai led armies northward

• Despite Aurangzeb conquering Bijapur and Golconda, the Marathas survived through fort-based resistance

• Aurangzeb died ($1707$) having failed to subdue the Marathas

Phase 3 — Pan-Indian Expansion (1720–1761)

• Under Peshwa Bajirao I and Nanasaheb Peshwa, the Marathas expanded across India

• Controlled areas as far as Lahore, Attock, and Peshawar

• By 1754, Marathas controlled Delhi

• Empire became decentralised with powerful regional chiefs (Holkars, Scindias, Bhonsles, Patwardhans)

Phase 4 — Setback and Recovery (1761–1771)

$1761 \rightarrow \text{Battle of Panipat (defeat)} \rightarrow \text{Recovery under Peshwa Madhavrao I} \rightarrow 1771 \text{ (Delhi recaptured by Mahadji Shinde)}$

Phase 5 — Decline and Fall (1775–1818)

Factors leading to decline:

Conclusion

The Marathas rose from a regional Deccan power to the largest pan-Indian empire through a combination of military genius, administrative reform, naval power, and cultural confidence. Their legacy — the ideal of Swarājya — continued to inspire Indians and planted the seeds of the freedom movement.