Chapter 3 Notes: The Rise of the Marathas

The Marathas are people native to the Deccan plateau (present-day Maharashtra) who speak Marathi, a language with a rich literary history since the 12th century. Before Maratha power rose, Maharashtra was ruled by the Yadava dynasty (capital: Devagiri), which was later overthrown by the Khilji Sultanate in the 14th century. The Bhakti movement saints like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Tukaram, and Ramdas gave Marathi society a strong cultural and spiritual foundation, which helped the Marathas later unite as a political power.

Shivaji was born in 1630 to Shahji and Jijabai in the Bhonsle clan. Raised in Pune under Jijabai's guidance, he began military campaigns at just 16 years old, capturing neglected forts and dreaming of Swarājya (sovereign self-rule). Key events in his life:

• 1657: Founded the Maratha Navy
• 1666: Imprisoned at Agra by Aurangzeb; escaped in fruit baskets
• 1674: Crowned Chhatrapati at Raigad Fort
• 1677: Launched dakṣhiṇa-digvijaya (conquest of the South)
• 1680: Died at age 50

Shivaji used guerrilla warfare — using small, fast groups with knowledge of terrain — to defeat larger armies. He killed the Bijapur general Afzal Khan using a wāgh nakh (tiger's claw weapon) and raided the Mughal nobleman Shaista Khan's camp at night. He sacked the wealthy port city of Surat twice, gaining enormous treasure.

After Shivaji's death (1680), his son Sambhaji became Chhatrapati but was captured and executed by Aurangzeb. Then Rajaram and later Tarabai (Rajaram's queen) led the Marathas. Tarabai organised northward Maratha invasions into Mughal territories, saving Maratha independence.

Gradually, power shifted from the Chhatrapati to the Peshwa (Prime Minister). Peshwa Bajirao I and Nanasaheb Peshwa expanded the empire across India. The Marathas briefly controlled Lahore, Attock, and Peshawar. However, they suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Panipat (1761) against the Afghans. Under Mahadji Shinde, they recovered and recaptured Delhi in 1771.

Finally, three Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818) ended Maratha power. The British effectively took India from the Marathas more than from any other power.

Civilian Administration:

• Shivaji had a relatively centralised system; he abolished hereditary posts and paid salaries from the state treasury.
• Officials were periodically transferred to prevent them from becoming too powerful.
• He gave pensions to widows of soldiers and offered military posts to their sons.
• He had an Aṣhṭa Pradhāna Maṇḍala — a council of 8 ministers including the Pradhan (PM), Senapati (Commander), Amātya (Finance), Sachiv (Land Revenue), Mantrī (Intelligence), Sumant (Foreign Affairs), Nyāyādhīsh (Chief Justice), and Panḍitrāo (Religious Affairs).

Taxes:

• Chauth: 25% tax collected from provinces not directly under Maratha rule.
• Sardeshmukhi: An additional 10% on top of chauth.

Military:

• Army had infantry, cavalry, and navy.
• Cavalry soldiers: Bārgīrs (state-funded) and Shiledārs (self-funded).
• Weapons: swords, lances, guns, and rockets (metal tube rockets by 1770).

Judiciary:

• Local panchāyat delivered justice; appeals could go to a Maratha chief.
• Kotwāl (police) maintained law and order in towns.

Navy: Shivaji founded the Maratha Navy in 1657 to secure India's west coast — a revolutionary step, as neither the Bijapur Sultanate nor the Mughal Empire had a proper full-time navy. Kanhoji Angre later led the navy to victory against European powers using clever geography and battle tactics. The Marathas even challenged the European practice of forcing Indians to buy naval trade passes (cartaz), demanding passes from Europeans instead!

Forts: Forts were the 'core of the Maratha state'. Shivaji captured and strengthened hundreds of forts across the Deccan. Forts helped:

• Control important routes
• Shelter the army for guerrilla warfare
• Survive prolonged Mughal invasions (as stated by Ramachandrapant Amatya in the Ādnyāpatra)

Famous forts: Raigad (capital, coronation site), Sindhudurg (naval fort), Pratapgad, Gingee.

The Marathas contributed greatly to India's cultural life:

• Shivaji's seal used Sanskrit (not Persian), asserting Indian cultural identity.
• He commissioned Rājya-Vyavahāra-Koṣha — a dictionary replacing Persian diplomatic words with Sanskrit/Marathi equivalents.
• He used the Devanagari script on his coins and promoted Marathi and Sanskrit literature.
• He rebuilt desecrated temples and promoted traditional arts.
• The Moḍī script (cursive Devanagari) was used for Maratha correspondence.

Thanjavur Marathas: Ekoji (Shivaji's half-brother) conquered Thanjavur and began a rich tradition of syncretic culture blending Tamil, Telugu, and Marathi influences. Serfoji II was the most notable ruler — he patronised Carnatic music, shaped early Bharatanatyam, started the first printing press by a native Indian ruler, and set up Dhanwantari Mahal — a free medical centre combining Indian and Western medicine.

Tarabai (early 18th century): After her husband Rajaram's death, she fearlessly led the Marathas against Aurangzeb. She organised large armies and sent them northward into Mughal territories — making her the architect of northward Maratha expansion. Her military strategy preserved Maratha independence during its most critical period.

Ahilyabai Holkar (18th century): Ruler of the Holkar dynasty (around present-day Indore), she governed wisely for 30 years after losing her husband and son. She built and restored hundreds of temples, ghats, wells, and roads across India — from Kedarnath in the north to Rameswaram in the south. She rebuilt the Kashi Vishwanath temple (Varanasi) and the Somnath temple (Gujarat), and promoted the Maheshwar weaving industry.

The Marathas built the largest Indian empire before the British, controlling much of central and northern India. Their key contributions were:

1. Political: Challenged and weakened Mughal dominance; the British effectively took India from the Marathas more than from any other power.
2. Administrative: Introduced efficient, relatively centralised administration with salaries, transfers, and welfare for soldiers.
3. Military: Built India's first full-time navy; used guerrilla warfare and forts creatively.
4. Cultural: Revived Indian languages, scripts, arts, temples, and trade; inspired cultural confidence across regions.
5. Inspiration: The ideal of Swarājya inspired later generations to believe in self-governance, planting early seeds for India's freedom movement.